NOTES I TOOK AT THE ASIAN ART MUSEUM
6/30/2006
Korean scroll illustrating standing Avalokiteshvara, 1600-1700
Avalokiteshvara (Korean: Gwanse-eum Bosal or Gwaneum) is a deeply compassionate and merciful deity in Korean Buddhism. It is believed that he changed himself into 33 different forms in an effort to save al beings from suffering and lead them to the Pure Land Paradise of the Buddha Amitabha (Korean: Amita).
Unusual features of this depiction of Avalokiteshvara include the diadem with three standing figures—the Buddha Amitabha flanked by Bodhisattvas—and the decorative band along the hem of the white shawl. The cartouche in the upper right reads:
Possessing power divinely bestowed upon him,
In every direction, over the land of all nations,
He spreads wisdom and beneficence.
His living image stands in every temple.
(Translated by Dr. Sun-hak Choy)
Japan
Kofun (old tombs) period funerary wares
Japan, Kofun period (300-552)
--Kofun=gigantic tomb (custom ending with arrival of Buddhism)
Hanima figures—
Hanima (literally “circle of clay”) are low-fired clay sculptures. The earliest were simple cylinders placed on top and sides of burial mounds. More complex ones were topped with various clay figures. Warriors, women, birds and other animals, houses, and b oats. One theory is that Hanima were used to stabilize the earth around the mound or to demarcate it. Another says their arrangement depicted ritual processions performed for the spirit of the deceased.
[I drew a couple pictures of Hanima representing female shamans.]
SHINTO
Kami--Japanese for spirits [Shikakami in Saiyuki, Shitakami in Descendants of Darkness—this is anime stuff!]
Since ancient times, the Japanese have worshipped kami (spirits). More than 8 million spirits are thought to inhabit such locations as mountains, rocks, waterfalls, and trees. Different kami are worshipped by different individuals, groups, clans, towns, as well as by those in particular professions, such as farming and fishing.
The belief system is quite broad and not clearly defined. Over time it has absorbed some aspects of the foreign beliefs and religions encountered by people who have practiced it. Chinese divination, astrology, and Taoism; Korean shamanism; and, most importantly, Buddhism. Curiously, the worship of kami did not have a specific name until the Meiji period (1868-1912) when, because of political ideology, it came to be called Shinto, or “way of gods,” to differentiate from Butsudo, or “way of the Buddha.” The present appearance of most shrines and the uniformity of their rituals are direct results of this effort to establish a distinct identity for spirit worship.
Kami images
Though, as spirits, kami are formless, sometimes they have been represented as having forms. In the Kofun Period (300-552), kami were associated with material things that could induce a feeling of awe and thus they were thought to be holy. Bronze bells, mirrors, spears, and swords—the high-tech objects of the time—were considered to possess the qualities of kami and were buried in graves. Similarly, the bronze mirrors, the sword, and the jewel, known collectively as the three sacred treasures, were kept in shrines. In the 9th century, under the strong influence of Buddhism, images of kami, male and female, began to be made.
The core of Shinto is nature worship. Since ancient times, the Japanese worshiped spirits (kami) who were believed to exist abundantly in such forms of the natural world as mountains, rocks, waterfalls, and trees.
Dhritarashtra—guardian king of the East
Virudhaka—guardian king of the South
In Indian Buddhist mythology, the guardian kings of the four directions dwell on the upper slopes of Mount Meru. In a Japanese Buddhist temple, the guardian kings are placed on an elaborate platform representing Mount Meru.
Buddhism was officially transmitted to Japan in 525, when the monarch of the Korean kingdom of Baekje sent a mission to Japan with gifts, including an image of the Buddha, several ritual objects, and sacred texts.
The Making of Buddhist Sculpture
Through the ages, Japanese Buddhist sculptures have been made in a variety of techniques and mediums; bronze and other metals, dry lacquer, clay and wood. Two mediums are most commonly associated with Japanese sculpture: dry lacquer before the 9th century and wood from then on.
Dry lacquer--This medium has the potential for fine surface modeling and is lightweight for portability. Although popular through the 8th century, dry lacquer fell out of favor because the technique was expensive and time-consuming.
Wood--This material is plentiful in Japan, and a variety of woods have been used in the making of sculpture, among them Japanese cypress (ninoki) and a kind of Japanese elm (zelkova). Beginning in the 11th century, single-block carving was improved upon using the new techniques of joinery and gluing, and multiple-block assemblage (yosegizukuri), which made it possible to create larger images. Several woodblocks could be shaped individually, hollowed out, and then assembled into one large sculpture. There were several advantages to this technique: the sculpture was less likely to split because the wood core had been removed; through the use of small pieces of wood, the technique required only a third of the wood demanded for single-block construction; the work could also be divided into specialized steps, each done by different groups of workers, a process somewhat like that of a factory assembly line.
Brahma and Indra were Hindu gods who were incorporated into Buddhist mythology as attendants of the Buddha. They appeared as such in Japanese sculpture in the 8th century.
Amida [Japanese for Amitabha], Lord of the Western Paradise, wears a monk’s robe and stands in concentration with eyes half-closed. His palms face outward with the tips of both index fingers and thumbs touching. In Japan this particular hand gesture signifies Amida’s descent to the earth to welcome the souls of the deceased to his paradise, as the Pure Land school of Buddhism teaches.
The art of Pure Land Buddhism
In the latter part of the Heian Period (794-1185), the Pure Land School of Buddhism became popular, particularly among aristocrats. This doctrine taught people of the horrors of Buddhist hells and the glories of the Western Paradise of the Buddha Amitabha. Pious devotees sought to be reborn into this paradise in the next life. To attain this goal, they were told, they did not have to perform complicated rituals or study Buddhist texts. They simply had to meditate and recite the prayer “Namu Amida Butsu” (I take my refuge in Amida Buddha). [This is so not my kind of Buddhism.]
[Amida sculptures and temples—built at quick pace.]
Pure Land ideology was further manifested in the development in the so-called descent of Amida (Amida Raigo) as a theme. In painting and sculpture, Amida is depicted in the act of descending to earth to welcome a dying person and to convey the deceased to the Western Paradise.
6-armed Avalokiteshvara (Japanese= Kannon)—Large wooden statue that I sketched
Nyoirin Kannon is one of the most important deities in Japanese Buddhism. He [or she, since this is Quanyin] helps all people attain prosperity and security as well as supreme enlightenment.
Nyoirin Kannon is identified with two of the four objects he once held, the wheel of law on the tip of the index finger of the raised left arm, and a wish-granting gem on his second right hand. He grants worshipers wealth and relief of suffering by turning the wheel—which is a metaphor for preaching—and holding the gem that, it is said, was obtained from the dragon-king of the sea.
Nyoirin Kannon’s four other hands either make a gesture or held a symbolic object on his right side. The upper arm touches the cheek, representing his thought; and the third lowered hand held prayer beads [mala]. On his left side, his lower hand touches the earth, and his second hand held a lotus, a symbol of purity. All these objects, including the wheel and gem, have been lost.
7/4/2006
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asians make use of Indian ideas—
How and why Indian religious, cultural, and political ideas became so important in Southeast Asia is not fully understood.
By the 300s or 400s, when the adaptation of Indian ideas seems to have begun, many Southeast Asian communities were building villages and practicing advanced agriculture and metalworking. Local leaders must have thought that making use of the elite belief systems and artistic forms of the Indian world—which they initially learned of from traders and travelers—would increase their prestige and power. Eventually, as kingdoms arose, their royal courts took on the trappings of Indian courts, and various schools of Hinduism and Buddhism flourished. Sanskrit…was used with great sophistication for poetry praising the king or addressing the gods.
The Vietnamese, in contrast to other SE Asians, admired and adapted some aspects of the elite culture of China, rather than that of India.
There is a Hindu tradition of nine planetary deities, each associated with a “planet”—such as the sun, Venus, or a comet—known to ancient astronomers, and these nine are sometimes represented together in Indian sculpture.
The significance of the crowned and jeweled Buddha image varied in different places and periods. According to a tradition known in Thailand and Burma for the past several centuries (and perhaps considerably longer), an arrogant king named Jambypati once attempted to awe the Buddha with his grandeur. In response, the Buddha manifested himself in the most magnificent crown and royal finery to teach that the grandeur of Buddhahood vastly outshines that of earthly kingship. [If nothing else, it serves an excuse to make very showy pretty boy Buddha statues, especially in Southeast Asia.]
Buddha protected by serpent—In both India and SE Asia serpents are associated with the waters of the earth, but in ancient Angkor, legends suggest that their association with the life-giving powers of water in agriculture made them even more important.
The union of the bell and vajra (both used in Tantric practice) leads to enlightenment. Bell=transcendent wisdom (feminine symbol)
The Kingdom of Pagan, approx. 1000-1300
Powerful Burmese kingdom of Pagan, the Buddhist rulers of Pagan built, in their capital, hundreds of large temples of brick and stucco, many of which survive today. Inside the temples, the walls were often painted with brilliantly colored scenes from the life of the Buddha and other Buddhist subjects, and lined with sculptures.
Pagan had cultural and artistic ties with the homeland of Buddhism in eastern India. Few ancient Buddhist temples have survived in eastern India, so the beautiful temples of Pagan are the best remaining suggestion of the architecture of the center of the Buddhist world.
Votive tablets—Buddhist votive tablets were made by pressing damp clay into molds, then removing and baking it. Votive tablets would have been rather inexpensive. Pious people could have bought them and had them deposited in or under stupas or other temple buildings as offerings. Pilgrims sometimes carried them, and so votive tablets are sometimes found far from where they were made.
Buddha images in Thailand are shown in four postures: sitting, standing, walking, and reclining. Reclining images are usually conceived as standing images lying on their side. That is, their drapery and earlobes hang as they would if the images were standing, and do not reflect the effects gravity would have.
Woman’s skirt—Laos—Laos skirts consists of three parts: a waistband, a body, and a border at the bottom. Body=elaborate tie-dye
Rod puppets—Java, Indonesia
An Indonesian puppet maker’s collection generally consists of 50-90 puppets. Sets of puppets include gods, demons, jesters, nobles, and servants. Most puppets can be categorized as representing refined or coarse characters….The most refined have white faces, bowed heads, narrow eyes and noses. The heads of the cruder figures often have red faces and round, protruding noses. Many [demons] were invented in Java and have no counterparts in the original Indian version of the epics.
Tibet and the Himalayas
Simhavaktra Dakini—(photo of crazy demon-like dancing dakini), an enlightened goddess of the Gelug order of Tibetan Buddhism, clears obstacles from the paths of those who seek enlightenment and provides inspiration and knowledge. The dancing goddess’s hair blazes upward with the fire of wisdom. Her lion head indicates fearlessness in confronting all obstacles to liberation. Her cape is made of freshly flayed human skin, signifying her transcendence of the limitations of the human condition. The bone ornaments on her chest indicate that she has passed beyond the cycles of birth and death; the tiger skin around her waist symbolizes victory over all harmful passions and deeds. This figure once held a chopper, a skull cup, and a staff.
White Tara—according to the first Dalai Lama, White Tara is “the wisdom, compassion, and enlightened activity of all Buddhas arising in the form of a beautiful goddess.” She is an important goddess in Nepal and Tibet, and worship of her dates from the 600s, when the two queens of the Tibetan king Songsten Gampo (reigned approx. 627-649) were deified and worshiped as the two forms of Tara. [Actually, there are 21 forms of Tara.]
White Tara’s right hand, posed in the gesture of gift-granting, indicates her gifts of spiritual attainments and Buddhahood to disciples. Her left hand, posed in the gesture of dispelling fear, shows that she protects disciples from all dangers, and disasters. The eyes on the palms and soles of her feet show her mastery of the four doors of liberation through which she frees all beings form misery. [Photo: big gold Tara.]
White Tara’s graceful figure symbolized both compassion and radiance.
Avalokiteshvara, the guardian Vajrapani, and the bodhisattva of wisdom Manjushri have long been seen as the three principal protectors of Tibet.
The Bonpo deity Kunsang Akor—also known as Shenla Odkar, is the Bon version of the historical Buddha.
Swastika—symbol of indestructibility and good fortune (Bon version of thunderbolt or dorje)
Kunsang Galwa Dupa—principle tranquil deity in the pantheon on the Bon religion—5 heads and 10 hands. The hands in front of his chest hold sun and moon discs inscribed with the Tibetan letters A and Ma; Bonpo rather than Buddhist.
Eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara—legend has it that Avalokiteshvara’s head burst into ten pieces when he despaired over the fact that no matter how many creatures he had succeeded in helping, more came to take their places. His spiritual father, the Buddha Amitabha, then came to his rescue. He gave Avalokiteshvara courage and shaped the broken pieces into ten heads and put his own head on top so that his spiritual soul would have eleven heads to contemplate all ways of helping others.
The goddess Ushnisha Sitatapatra—personification of the white parasol believed to protect all from harm.
Ganesha—known three ways in Tibetan Buddhist art. As an auspicious deity; as a god of wealth; and as the obstacle-creating demon who is trampled on by gods such as Mahakala (one of the 8 guardians of the law).
Mahasiddhas—“great adepts” or teachers, of Vajrayana Buddhism. Mostly Indians, Mahasiddhas were spiritual mavericks. They meditated in cremation grounds among charred corpses until they were beyond every fear of life and death. Their life stories are filled with tales of magic and miracles.
Photo I took of large bodhisattva and consort: the Buddhist deity Guhyasamaja (Sandui) form China 1400-1600
During the reigns of Yongle and Xuande emperors of China, many magnificent bronze images were cast by Chinese court artisans as presents to the high monks of Tibet as well as for the Emperor’s own worship. This example shows the 6-armed, 3-faced goddess Sparshavajra being embraced by Guhyasamaja, who also has six arms and three faces. The three faces are white, red, and blue, standing for the perfection of the physical, verbal and mental aspects of enlightened beings.
Guhyasamaja, whose name means “union of all secrets,” embodies all the sacred aspects of enlightened beings.
Far right in photo—the Buddha Vajradhara 1500-1600—representing the supreme essence of all buddhas, is identified by his hands, which are crossed in the gesture of high energy.
Tibetans see the skull as a natural container. Unshaped by human hands, it represents the fundamental goodness that is the natural condition of the mind. Bone trumpets call fearsome supernatural entities. Aprons of bone beads are counted among the funerary “dance clothes’ that signify a yogin’s heroic victory over life and death.
My photo—includes cabinet for storing offerings—cone-shaped dough offerings made of butter and roasted barley flour for the worship of wrathful deities.
Every monastery has a treasure chest—treasures like silver and gold butter lamps and rare thangkas. Chests were made in pairs.
Ushnishavijaya, the Buddha Amitayus, and White Tara are the three Tibetan Buddhist gods who grant longevity. Ushnishavijaya has three heads and eight hands. Buddhist texts specify that she traditionally held many symbolic elements, but they’re missing here. In her central hand she would have held a double thunderbolt; the other missing implements would have included a miniature Buddha image, a bow and arrow, and a vase containing the nectar of immortality.
7/6/2006
Tibet and the Himalayas (continued)
Thangkas
Shakyamuni, the historic Buddha, is identified in the Tibetan tradition by his yellow color and his hand gestures: his right hand makes the earth-touching gesture and in his left he carries an alms bowl.
The Buddha Vairochana—who is white and in color and holds his hands in the gesture of preaching.
Dharmatala--idealized form of the great Tang Dynasty monk-explorer and translator Xuanzang (the one whom the monk in The Journey to the West is based).
Arhats—Indian disciples whom the Buddha instructed to spread his teachings throughout the world
Avalokiteshvara is said to have gone to Tibet in his monkey form and mates with an ogress [so Buddhists took the old Bon legend and incorporated Avalokiteshvara]; from this union came six children, the ancestors of all Tibetans. Out of this creation myth, Tibetans credit both their peaceful, contemplative nature and their wild, mischievous ways.
Peaceful and Wrathful Deities
The vast Tibetan pantheon includes numerous peaceful and wrathful deities, who guide and protect believers on their paths to enlightenment. Among the images of peaceful deities are those of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, great teachers, and high monks. Wrathful deities, such as the guardian deities, use their power to protect Buddhism and to destroy the three major obstacles to enlightenment: anger, greed, and ignorance.
…While most peaceful deities have only one head and two arms, some depictions of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, have multiple heads and many arms. Added to the complexity, peaceful deities can have wrathful manifestations and vice versa.
Peaceful Deities:
Plain or jeweled halo
Jeweled crown
Necklaces and garlands of jewels
Usually one head and two arms
Bodies of regular proportions
Blue hair, hair neatly arranged
2 eyes
Serene expression
Hold peaceful objects such as lotus blossoms and vases
Peaceful gestures: meditation, dispelling fear, gift granting, or preaching
Sitting or standing on moon (white) disk
Wrathful Deities:
Flaming halo
Crown of five skulls
Garland of freshly severed heads
Numerous heads and arms
Squat bodies with rotund bellies
Orange hair, hair standing on end
Three bulging eyes
Fierce expression
Hold fearsome weapons and implements such as curved choppers and skull bowls
Threatening gestures
Sitting or standing on sun (gold or orange) disk
(The guardian) Vaishravana is the god of wealth, one of the eight protectors of the Buddha’s law, and the guardian of the Northern direction. Here, he sits inside his palace on his snow lion mount, which is supported on a moon disk on top of a lotus pedestal. With his right hand he holds a victory banner, and with his left he squeezes a mongoose, which is spitting a string of pearls onto the bowl of offerings below.
Blue figure of Jambhala, also a god of wealth. (Gee, you wouldn’t expect Buddhists to be that much into wealth.)
Tibetan message boards—(1875-1925)—Message boards (samdra) are ingenious Tibetan devices that do not require using precious handmade paper. The two printed covers enclose three double-sided blank boards that would have been used for sending formal messages between officials and noble households. Prior to a message being written, the boards were greased with butter and coated with a fine layer of ash or white chalk; then they were written on with a bamboo pen. The boards were stacked together—their raised boards protecting the message from being scratched—and placed in an elegant case. They were carried by a servant to one recipient who, after wiping off the first message, inscribed a reply.
The eastern Tibetan kingdom of Derge, known for metal artisanship of exceptional quality. (Silver, Derge work)
Togchas
[Display of little metal things]
Togchas (Tibetan: thog-lcags) are metal objects believed by Tibetans to have fallen from the sky, and are thus highly treasured as powerful talismans for warding off evil. The words thog (thunder and lightning) and lcags (iron) indicate that these metal objects are associated with specific atmospheric phenomena. The fact that togchas are found by chance by Tibetan peasants working in the fields or picked up by nomads in the highlands has led to the belief that they were not created by human hands but “fall from the sky” due to the effects of thunder and lightning. Tibetans wear togchas on their bodies and fondle them with their hands; some togchas develop a patina from constant handling.
Togchas, although found in Tibet, are not necessarily Tibetan in origin.
Bronze and other copper alloys.
Amulet containers of Tibet
Amulet containers (gau) are some of the most important personal adornments in Tibet. This container for small images, printed prayers and charms, molded tablets of protective deities and other relics has traditionally been worn by both men and women to ward off evil. The top of the gau, usually of silver, has fine filigree work and is sometimes embellished with turquoise and coral. The plain back is removable so objects can be inserted. Elaborate examples worn by the elite are made of gold and turquoise. While women wear the gau on a short necklace around their necks, strung with turquoise, coral, or banded agates, a man’s gau is larger and often shaped like a shrine. A traveler straps the gau to the arm or wears it across the chest bandolier style. The traveling gau is sometimes encased in brocade and is placed on the family altar when not in use.
[I bought an amulet, silver, turquoise and coral, at the Tibetan Style store.]
Molded plaques [I took a picture—big one is Avalokiteshvara]
…(Tsha tshas) are small sacred images, flat or three-dimensional, shaped out of clay in metal molds. The images are usually unbaked, and sometimes seeds, paper, or human ashes were mixed with the clay. Making tsha tshas is a meritorious act, and monasteries give them away to pilgrims. Some Tibetans carry tsha tshas inside the amulet boxes they wear…or stuff them into larger images as part of the consecration of those images. In Bhutan tsha tshas are found inside mani walls (a wall of stones carved with prayers) or piled up in caves. The practice of making such plaques began in India, and from there it spread to other countries in Asia with the advent of Buddhism.
Bhutan costume
Skewer-like pins (silver and turquoise) [used like kilt pins.]
Photo of woven fabric:
Woman’s costume (kira) on a blue ground
Cotton and silk
Three panels woven on a blackstrap loom were sewn together to form this kira, or woman’s costume [similar to a kilt/tartan]. It is worn wrapped around the body, belted at the waist (vertical stripes for women, horizontal for men.)
Guanyin—means “one who hears the sounds of the world.”
[Photo of bronze dakini with lion’s head]:
Simhavaktra Dakini (1600-1700, Tibet, gilt bronze)
The lion-headed dakini, Simhavaktra Dakini, strides in the sea of blood that represents samsara, the endless cycle of birth and death. Together with the crocodile-headed dakini, Simhavaktra Dakini accompanies Penjen Lhamo [protector of Lhasa & the Dalai Lama] in her efforts to liberate living beings. Simhavaktra Dakini holds a curved chopping knife, which cuts off the delusions that keep living beings trapped in the endless cycle. She is naked except for the flayed human skin on her back representing her triumph over the limitations of the human condition, and the wheel on her belly symbolizing the teachings of the Buddha.
Penden Lhamo, protector of the Gelug order
Penden Lhamo is the protector of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas, leaders of the Gelug [Gelukpa] order of Tibetan Buddhism.
Penden Lhamo is the only goddess among the eight guardians of the law. Accompanied by lion- and crocodile-headed dakinis, she rides her mule across the sea of blood that represents the endless cycle of birth and death, in order to liberate living beings from that cycle. The goddess sits on the flayed skin of her son, a nonbeliever [talk about religious persecution]. Attached to the trappings of the mule are her various emblems: a book, a ball of magic thread, a skin bag of diseases for germ warfare, and a pair of dice for divination. [Took photo—1700-1800, China, gilt bronze]
China
Essential Features of Early Chinese Religion
People in every station in life had a religious obligation to worship and honor ancestors, and to provide a male heir to continue the family line. At the highest levels, this same belief system applied: worship of a ruler’s ancestors was necessary for the continued existence of a state.
Obliged by their religion to provide their parents with a proper funeral with as much pomp as was financially possible and permitted by the codes of the time. Tombs were to be furnished according to the status of the deceased.
Each person was believed to have a complex soul. Some parts of the soul were thought to stay with the body after burial and others to travel to paradise.
There were state-sponsored rites to high divinities, such as the gods of the four directions or the four (or eight) winds, and the gods of the soil.
There was widespread belief in and rituals for deities of local mountains, rivers, old trees, and the like [and that shows up in The Journey to the West].
Religious buildings (including tombs) and the rites conducted in or about them were required to be properly oriented in relation to the directions and cosmic forces.
Fourth century CE—Buddhism came to China.
Jadework—goes back 6000 years in China.
Religious and Funerary Practices:
Because certain aspects of the deceased’s soul were believed to continue to dwell in the tomb, it was imperative that the body be preserved and accompanied by goods that represented the status of the deceased….
It was thought that there were specific dwelling places for the immortals and that the soul of the deceased could travel to and reside in those places.
Spells and incantations, magical beings, and special prayers were believed to enable the deceased to reach a state of immortality.
The entrance to the tomb of a wealthy and highly placed member of the Tang aristocracy was elaborate. Leading to the tomb was a spirit path (shendao) flanked by pairs of stone animals and human attendants. A doorway marked the entrance to the tomb proper, and the path continued in the form of a ramp, to the burial chamber. Guardians in clay flanked the ramp.
Animals, Supernatural and Real
Clay models of a menagerie of animals, both real and imaginary, have been found arranged in aristocratic tombs dating from the Han through the Tang dynasties (206 BCE-906 BCE). They represented the desires of the living to reproduce symbolically the ideal environment for the deceased in the afterlife. The choice of animals provides some fascinating insights into the concerns and activities of aristocratic families during this time.
Horses played the predominant role among models of real animals. Valued as beasts of burden, as animals of war [barf] and sport, and as symbols of almost supernatural power (certain breeds were called “heavenly horses”), they were frequently depicted in funerary sculpture and paintings. Models of ox, camels, and other beasts of burden also appear in tombs, as do those of pigs, chickens, and the occasional sheep and goat. Models of dogs were buried with their owners, attesting to their status as valued pets, hunting companions, and at times a source of food.
A considerable number of clay models of imaginary animals have also been found in tombs. Some, such as fabulous creatures with human heads and composite animal bodies, served as guardians at the entrance to tombs. Others had directional or other symbolic significance.
Buddhism’s Arrival in China
The development of Buddhism in China during the four centuries following the collapse of the Han Dynasty in 220 is a momentous chapter in the story of China’s religious and cultural development. At the end of the Han Dynasty, China had already had a 2,000-year history during which it had developed a strong centralized civilization suspicious of and often condescending to things foreign. Moreover, China had a strong state cult and entrenched beliefs in ancestor worship.
Why, then, did so many Chinese [take up Buddhism]?… Four fundamental reasons can readily be suggested: the widespread suffering that followed the collapse of the mighty Han Dynasty, the resulting doubts in the institutions of Han culture, the appeal of new and different ideas, and the occupation of large parts of China by non-Chinese people. While compatible with some existing spiritual ideas, Buddhism offered an end to life’s cycle of suffering and offered rebirth in paradise. In contrast with other religions practiced in China at that time, it offered salvation to all levels of society.
Women and Early Chinese Buddhism
In 386 the Toba, a non-Chinese central Asian people, conquered northern China and established the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-535). Its leaders employed a number of methods to consolidate their rule over the Chinese population, including arranged marriages with important Chinese families. As the wives and mothers of emperors, the women involved in these marriages were in a position to influence the development of Buddhism in northern China as well as the course of Chinese culture and politics.
One such woman was Lady Feng, who, as the mother of an underage emperor, was a considerable force at the Wei court from 476 to 490. Under her influence many Chinese were placed in positions of power, their language and manner of dress at court replaced those of the Toba, and the ruling clans were forced to use Chinese names. Lady Feng was also instrumental in bringing out the change from Greco-Roman-influenced style of sculpture to thinner, flatter figures covered with extremely heavy robes.
Later Chinese Buddhism
In 845 the Tang emperor Wu, under the influence of Taoist and Confucian advisors, began to persecute those who practiced religions that didn’t originate in China. According to records of the time, some 4600 Buddhist monasteries were demolished, their property was seized by the throne, massive numbers of Buddhist artworks were destroyed, and more than 260,000 monks and nuns were returned to lay life.
Although Buddhist institutions would never again be as strong or as rich as they had been in earlier dynasties, the religion nonetheless continued to play a vital role in Chinese life.
(Another day)
India
Naga—supernatural serpents, good luck because they’re associated with water.
Turns the wheel of the doctrine= Buddhist preaching (was already used in ancient Indian art)
Buddhist creed:
“The Buddha has explained the cause of all things that arise from a cause. He, the great monk, has also explained their cessation.”
When this statement is inscribed on sculptures, it is more than a simple statement of belief. In fact, for believers it serves to animate the sculpture with the living presence of the Buddha’s doctrine.
Standard 8 scenes of the Buddha’s life (and locations):
1) Birth (Lumbini)
2) Victory over Mara (Bodhgaya)
3) First preaching (Sarnath)
4) Miracles of Shravasti (Shravasti)
5) Descent from Indra’s heavens after the Buddha had preached to his deceased mother (Sankashya)
6) The monkey’s offering (Vaishali)
7) The taming of the enraged elephant (Rajgir)
8) Death (Kushinagara)
(Gee, at least some of those places are in "The Footsteps of the Buddha" tour that I would love to take.)
The Buddhist deity Vajra Tara (Diamond Tara or Thunderbolt Tara) is know as a provider of magical protection. Her devotees were adherents of a branch of Buddhism that made use of mandalas….
The Buddha taming the enraged elephant
The Buddha’s evil cousin sent an enraged elephant to attack him. The Buddha held his ground and is said to have suffused the elephant with loving-kindness of mind. The elephant knelt in submission. This story can be understood as symbolizing our need to subdue our uncontrolled and violent animal instincts.
[The only animal that drops bombs and builds nuclear weapons is the human animal.]
Later Buddhism in India
After Buddhism became increasingly elaborate, many Buddhists envisioned a universe of thousands of world systems existing at the same time, each presided over by a Buddha. Some Buddhists envisioned five Buddhas ruling the five directions (east, south, west, north, center). Also worshiped were the crowned Buddha, the great savior deities (Bodhisattvas), and female deities such as the one who personifies the perfection of “transcendent wisdom.”
Language in India—
The most fundamental cultural different is between the north and the south. For 1000s of years the north has been affected by the movements of peoples and ideas from the northwest—from Central Asia and the Iranian world. Most northern Indians speak languages like Hindi and Gujurati that belong to the Indo-European family. These languages are distantly related to Latin and English. By contrast, most southern Indians speak languages from the Dravidian family, which are unrelated to languages in other parts of the world.
Hindu temples often had sculptures of the deities of the 4 cardinal (north, south, east, west) and 4 intercardinal (Northeast, Southeast, Southwest, and Northwest) directions positioned on their exterior walls.
Mahavira (approx. 599-527 BCE), founder of Jainism (contemporary of the Buddha Siddhartha)
Like the Buddha, Mahavira questioned traditional practices such as the caste system, the priestly domination of religious life, and the performance of ritual sacrifices. He taught that the ultimate religious goal—escape from the cycle of rebirth—could be achieved through very strict meditation, self-denial, and nonviolence.
Jain figures are always sculptured with hands folded in meditation. Some have auspicious diamond pattern on chest.
Features such as a lotus seat, lions, a halo, and a wheel are seen in Jain, Buddhist, and Hindu imagery alike.
Kalpasutra—Jain scripture
Hinduism
To outside observers, a prominent feature of Hinduism is the belief in many deities. Most Hindus believe that there is one supreme deity. Beyond form, and therefore without such attributes as size, gender, or color—of whom the many individual gods and goddesses are forms existing for the benefit of worshipers.
Two male demons set out to overcome the warrior goddess Durga. When she saw them, “her face in anger became black as ink. From her knitted brows sprang forth Kali (Chamunda), with her dreadful face…. She carried a strange skull-shaped staff, she was shrouded in a tiger skin and looked utterly gruesome with her emaciated skin. Her mouth gaped widely, terrifying with its lolling tongue, and filled the directions with roars.”
From Devi Mahatmya [The Glories of the Goddess]
Translation: Devi, the Great Goddess by Thomas B. Coburn (1999)
Auspicious Kali—gracious aspect of Kali
Statue of Krishna has a halo and inside the halo is a design that looks like the star of David. It’s actually an ancient Hindu symbol of the integration of opposites (Da Vinci Code)
Jambhala is chief among a group of deities know as Yakshas, who are closely associated with nature and the riches of the earth. … Jambhala and other Yakshas were the focus of numerous local cults before Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism emerged. … To win the support of local communities, the proponents of these three faiths incorporated many such deities into their pantheons.
Brahmani
Many male Hindu deities have a female counterpart who embodies an aspect of their energy. Here is Brahmani, the female counterpart of Brahma, a creator deity. Like Brahma she is identifiable by her four faces (one in back) and her accompanying animal, a wild goose.
Brahmani is one of a group of female deities know as the “Seven Mother Goddesses.”
Korea
Ancient Koreans believed birds to be messengers to the spirit world because they could travel over land and water and through the sky. In some images, figures of birds can still be seen on top of tall wooden poles, recalling their earlier importance. Because they mate for life, ducks were especially favored by Koreans.
Buddhism in Korea
Buddhism became the official religion of one of Korea’s early kingdoms in 372, after a priest from China arrived with Buddhist images and sculptures. From the time of its intro it had the enthusiastic support of the rulers and the aristocracy. By the middle of the 500s, Buddhism had been accepted officially by all three kingdoms that reigned in Korean at that time.
Many Korean monks traveled to China to study Buddhism; some even went as far as India. The monk Hyecho, for instance, made a journey through China to India around 723. He wrote an account of his pilgrimage to holy places called Record of a Journey to the Five Indian Kingdoms.
Buddhism reached a glorious era during the Unified Silla Dynasty (663-935). Gyeonghu, the capital of this dynasty, was described as the city where the roof lines of Buddhist temples looked like flying geese, and pagodas were as numerous as the stars. By the beginning of the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) the fervor for Buddhism became so great that princes and sons of prominent families were encouraged to become monks.
Then, during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) reform-minded Confucian scholar-officials instituted a number of harsh restrictions on the practice of Buddhism, such as reducing the number of temples and confiscating Buddhist lands and goods. Despite these policies of repression, the religion survived in Korea. Today it is once again a vital force, attracting a large following.
China (again)
Romance of the Western Chamber—Chinese classic
Cats and butterflies are among the many symbols for longevity. The cat (mao) sounds like the word for 70, while the butterfly (die) shares a sound with the word for 80. They form a visual pun for maodie (longevity).
Chinese Symbolism
Cranes = longevity
Fungus (mushroom)= immortality
Peonies= wealth and prosperity
Pine needles= longevity
Most popular meanings: longevity (shou) ; the passing of exams, high rank, and wealth (lu); and blessings and children (fu).
When combined with one another, these symbols create auspicious sayings that have been used since antiquity in China.
Magu—identified by jade basket of fungus of immortality, is the goddess Chinese women pray to for longevity (Daoist).
White magnolia (yulan) and peonies (fugushua) stand for yutang fugas, a popular phrase for wealth and rank.
Buddha’s hand citron—fruit thought to resemble Buddha hands, means blessing and longevity
Daoist Goddess Dowmu—(8 arms) –2 hands praying
The Dipper Mother (Douriu) g rants longevity, affluence, and protection to her worshipers. Taoist tradition—clouds shaped like wish-fulfilling fungus of immortality.
Marici= Buddhist goddess of the dawn (this image is both—she’s in sun dsik, three-headed with left head = boar.
Holds up sun and moon disks (upper hands), bow and arrow (next down), bell and vase (lowest arms).
Although she’s mother goddess of the seven stars of Ursula Major (the Northern Dipper) She can have 18 arms and can combine Buddhism with Daoism.
6/30/2006
Korean scroll illustrating standing Avalokiteshvara, 1600-1700
Avalokiteshvara (Korean: Gwanse-eum Bosal or Gwaneum) is a deeply compassionate and merciful deity in Korean Buddhism. It is believed that he changed himself into 33 different forms in an effort to save al beings from suffering and lead them to the Pure Land Paradise of the Buddha Amitabha (Korean: Amita).
Unusual features of this depiction of Avalokiteshvara include the diadem with three standing figures—the Buddha Amitabha flanked by Bodhisattvas—and the decorative band along the hem of the white shawl. The cartouche in the upper right reads:
Possessing power divinely bestowed upon him,
In every direction, over the land of all nations,
He spreads wisdom and beneficence.
His living image stands in every temple.
(Translated by Dr. Sun-hak Choy)
Japan
Kofun (old tombs) period funerary wares
Japan, Kofun period (300-552)
--Kofun=gigantic tomb (custom ending with arrival of Buddhism)
Hanima figures—
Hanima (literally “circle of clay”) are low-fired clay sculptures. The earliest were simple cylinders placed on top and sides of burial mounds. More complex ones were topped with various clay figures. Warriors, women, birds and other animals, houses, and b oats. One theory is that Hanima were used to stabilize the earth around the mound or to demarcate it. Another says their arrangement depicted ritual processions performed for the spirit of the deceased.
[I drew a couple pictures of Hanima representing female shamans.]
SHINTO
Kami--Japanese for spirits [Shikakami in Saiyuki, Shitakami in Descendants of Darkness—this is anime stuff!]
Since ancient times, the Japanese have worshipped kami (spirits). More than 8 million spirits are thought to inhabit such locations as mountains, rocks, waterfalls, and trees. Different kami are worshipped by different individuals, groups, clans, towns, as well as by those in particular professions, such as farming and fishing.
The belief system is quite broad and not clearly defined. Over time it has absorbed some aspects of the foreign beliefs and religions encountered by people who have practiced it. Chinese divination, astrology, and Taoism; Korean shamanism; and, most importantly, Buddhism. Curiously, the worship of kami did not have a specific name until the Meiji period (1868-1912) when, because of political ideology, it came to be called Shinto, or “way of gods,” to differentiate from Butsudo, or “way of the Buddha.” The present appearance of most shrines and the uniformity of their rituals are direct results of this effort to establish a distinct identity for spirit worship.
Kami images
Though, as spirits, kami are formless, sometimes they have been represented as having forms. In the Kofun Period (300-552), kami were associated with material things that could induce a feeling of awe and thus they were thought to be holy. Bronze bells, mirrors, spears, and swords—the high-tech objects of the time—were considered to possess the qualities of kami and were buried in graves. Similarly, the bronze mirrors, the sword, and the jewel, known collectively as the three sacred treasures, were kept in shrines. In the 9th century, under the strong influence of Buddhism, images of kami, male and female, began to be made.
The core of Shinto is nature worship. Since ancient times, the Japanese worshiped spirits (kami) who were believed to exist abundantly in such forms of the natural world as mountains, rocks, waterfalls, and trees.
Dhritarashtra—guardian king of the East
Virudhaka—guardian king of the South
In Indian Buddhist mythology, the guardian kings of the four directions dwell on the upper slopes of Mount Meru. In a Japanese Buddhist temple, the guardian kings are placed on an elaborate platform representing Mount Meru.
Buddhism was officially transmitted to Japan in 525, when the monarch of the Korean kingdom of Baekje sent a mission to Japan with gifts, including an image of the Buddha, several ritual objects, and sacred texts.
The Making of Buddhist Sculpture
Through the ages, Japanese Buddhist sculptures have been made in a variety of techniques and mediums; bronze and other metals, dry lacquer, clay and wood. Two mediums are most commonly associated with Japanese sculpture: dry lacquer before the 9th century and wood from then on.
Dry lacquer--This medium has the potential for fine surface modeling and is lightweight for portability. Although popular through the 8th century, dry lacquer fell out of favor because the technique was expensive and time-consuming.
Wood--This material is plentiful in Japan, and a variety of woods have been used in the making of sculpture, among them Japanese cypress (ninoki) and a kind of Japanese elm (zelkova). Beginning in the 11th century, single-block carving was improved upon using the new techniques of joinery and gluing, and multiple-block assemblage (yosegizukuri), which made it possible to create larger images. Several woodblocks could be shaped individually, hollowed out, and then assembled into one large sculpture. There were several advantages to this technique: the sculpture was less likely to split because the wood core had been removed; through the use of small pieces of wood, the technique required only a third of the wood demanded for single-block construction; the work could also be divided into specialized steps, each done by different groups of workers, a process somewhat like that of a factory assembly line.
Brahma and Indra were Hindu gods who were incorporated into Buddhist mythology as attendants of the Buddha. They appeared as such in Japanese sculpture in the 8th century.
Amida [Japanese for Amitabha], Lord of the Western Paradise, wears a monk’s robe and stands in concentration with eyes half-closed. His palms face outward with the tips of both index fingers and thumbs touching. In Japan this particular hand gesture signifies Amida’s descent to the earth to welcome the souls of the deceased to his paradise, as the Pure Land school of Buddhism teaches.
The art of Pure Land Buddhism
In the latter part of the Heian Period (794-1185), the Pure Land School of Buddhism became popular, particularly among aristocrats. This doctrine taught people of the horrors of Buddhist hells and the glories of the Western Paradise of the Buddha Amitabha. Pious devotees sought to be reborn into this paradise in the next life. To attain this goal, they were told, they did not have to perform complicated rituals or study Buddhist texts. They simply had to meditate and recite the prayer “Namu Amida Butsu” (I take my refuge in Amida Buddha). [This is so not my kind of Buddhism.]
[Amida sculptures and temples—built at quick pace.]
Pure Land ideology was further manifested in the development in the so-called descent of Amida (Amida Raigo) as a theme. In painting and sculpture, Amida is depicted in the act of descending to earth to welcome a dying person and to convey the deceased to the Western Paradise.
6-armed Avalokiteshvara (Japanese= Kannon)—Large wooden statue that I sketched
Nyoirin Kannon is one of the most important deities in Japanese Buddhism. He [or she, since this is Quanyin] helps all people attain prosperity and security as well as supreme enlightenment.
Nyoirin Kannon is identified with two of the four objects he once held, the wheel of law on the tip of the index finger of the raised left arm, and a wish-granting gem on his second right hand. He grants worshipers wealth and relief of suffering by turning the wheel—which is a metaphor for preaching—and holding the gem that, it is said, was obtained from the dragon-king of the sea.
Nyoirin Kannon’s four other hands either make a gesture or held a symbolic object on his right side. The upper arm touches the cheek, representing his thought; and the third lowered hand held prayer beads [mala]. On his left side, his lower hand touches the earth, and his second hand held a lotus, a symbol of purity. All these objects, including the wheel and gem, have been lost.
7/4/2006
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asians make use of Indian ideas—
How and why Indian religious, cultural, and political ideas became so important in Southeast Asia is not fully understood.
By the 300s or 400s, when the adaptation of Indian ideas seems to have begun, many Southeast Asian communities were building villages and practicing advanced agriculture and metalworking. Local leaders must have thought that making use of the elite belief systems and artistic forms of the Indian world—which they initially learned of from traders and travelers—would increase their prestige and power. Eventually, as kingdoms arose, their royal courts took on the trappings of Indian courts, and various schools of Hinduism and Buddhism flourished. Sanskrit…was used with great sophistication for poetry praising the king or addressing the gods.
The Vietnamese, in contrast to other SE Asians, admired and adapted some aspects of the elite culture of China, rather than that of India.
There is a Hindu tradition of nine planetary deities, each associated with a “planet”—such as the sun, Venus, or a comet—known to ancient astronomers, and these nine are sometimes represented together in Indian sculpture.
The significance of the crowned and jeweled Buddha image varied in different places and periods. According to a tradition known in Thailand and Burma for the past several centuries (and perhaps considerably longer), an arrogant king named Jambypati once attempted to awe the Buddha with his grandeur. In response, the Buddha manifested himself in the most magnificent crown and royal finery to teach that the grandeur of Buddhahood vastly outshines that of earthly kingship. [If nothing else, it serves an excuse to make very showy pretty boy Buddha statues, especially in Southeast Asia.]
Buddha protected by serpent—In both India and SE Asia serpents are associated with the waters of the earth, but in ancient Angkor, legends suggest that their association with the life-giving powers of water in agriculture made them even more important.
The union of the bell and vajra (both used in Tantric practice) leads to enlightenment. Bell=transcendent wisdom (feminine symbol)
The Kingdom of Pagan, approx. 1000-1300
Powerful Burmese kingdom of Pagan, the Buddhist rulers of Pagan built, in their capital, hundreds of large temples of brick and stucco, many of which survive today. Inside the temples, the walls were often painted with brilliantly colored scenes from the life of the Buddha and other Buddhist subjects, and lined with sculptures.
Pagan had cultural and artistic ties with the homeland of Buddhism in eastern India. Few ancient Buddhist temples have survived in eastern India, so the beautiful temples of Pagan are the best remaining suggestion of the architecture of the center of the Buddhist world.
Votive tablets—Buddhist votive tablets were made by pressing damp clay into molds, then removing and baking it. Votive tablets would have been rather inexpensive. Pious people could have bought them and had them deposited in or under stupas or other temple buildings as offerings. Pilgrims sometimes carried them, and so votive tablets are sometimes found far from where they were made.
Buddha images in Thailand are shown in four postures: sitting, standing, walking, and reclining. Reclining images are usually conceived as standing images lying on their side. That is, their drapery and earlobes hang as they would if the images were standing, and do not reflect the effects gravity would have.
Woman’s skirt—Laos—Laos skirts consists of three parts: a waistband, a body, and a border at the bottom. Body=elaborate tie-dye
Rod puppets—Java, Indonesia
An Indonesian puppet maker’s collection generally consists of 50-90 puppets. Sets of puppets include gods, demons, jesters, nobles, and servants. Most puppets can be categorized as representing refined or coarse characters….The most refined have white faces, bowed heads, narrow eyes and noses. The heads of the cruder figures often have red faces and round, protruding noses. Many [demons] were invented in Java and have no counterparts in the original Indian version of the epics.
Tibet and the Himalayas
Simhavaktra Dakini—(photo of crazy demon-like dancing dakini), an enlightened goddess of the Gelug order of Tibetan Buddhism, clears obstacles from the paths of those who seek enlightenment and provides inspiration and knowledge. The dancing goddess’s hair blazes upward with the fire of wisdom. Her lion head indicates fearlessness in confronting all obstacles to liberation. Her cape is made of freshly flayed human skin, signifying her transcendence of the limitations of the human condition. The bone ornaments on her chest indicate that she has passed beyond the cycles of birth and death; the tiger skin around her waist symbolizes victory over all harmful passions and deeds. This figure once held a chopper, a skull cup, and a staff.
White Tara—according to the first Dalai Lama, White Tara is “the wisdom, compassion, and enlightened activity of all Buddhas arising in the form of a beautiful goddess.” She is an important goddess in Nepal and Tibet, and worship of her dates from the 600s, when the two queens of the Tibetan king Songsten Gampo (reigned approx. 627-649) were deified and worshiped as the two forms of Tara. [Actually, there are 21 forms of Tara.]
White Tara’s right hand, posed in the gesture of gift-granting, indicates her gifts of spiritual attainments and Buddhahood to disciples. Her left hand, posed in the gesture of dispelling fear, shows that she protects disciples from all dangers, and disasters. The eyes on the palms and soles of her feet show her mastery of the four doors of liberation through which she frees all beings form misery. [Photo: big gold Tara.]
White Tara’s graceful figure symbolized both compassion and radiance.
Avalokiteshvara, the guardian Vajrapani, and the bodhisattva of wisdom Manjushri have long been seen as the three principal protectors of Tibet.
The Bonpo deity Kunsang Akor—also known as Shenla Odkar, is the Bon version of the historical Buddha.
Swastika—symbol of indestructibility and good fortune (Bon version of thunderbolt or dorje)
Kunsang Galwa Dupa—principle tranquil deity in the pantheon on the Bon religion—5 heads and 10 hands. The hands in front of his chest hold sun and moon discs inscribed with the Tibetan letters A and Ma; Bonpo rather than Buddhist.
Eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara—legend has it that Avalokiteshvara’s head burst into ten pieces when he despaired over the fact that no matter how many creatures he had succeeded in helping, more came to take their places. His spiritual father, the Buddha Amitabha, then came to his rescue. He gave Avalokiteshvara courage and shaped the broken pieces into ten heads and put his own head on top so that his spiritual soul would have eleven heads to contemplate all ways of helping others.
The goddess Ushnisha Sitatapatra—personification of the white parasol believed to protect all from harm.
Ganesha—known three ways in Tibetan Buddhist art. As an auspicious deity; as a god of wealth; and as the obstacle-creating demon who is trampled on by gods such as Mahakala (one of the 8 guardians of the law).
Mahasiddhas—“great adepts” or teachers, of Vajrayana Buddhism. Mostly Indians, Mahasiddhas were spiritual mavericks. They meditated in cremation grounds among charred corpses until they were beyond every fear of life and death. Their life stories are filled with tales of magic and miracles.
Photo I took of large bodhisattva and consort: the Buddhist deity Guhyasamaja (Sandui) form China 1400-1600
During the reigns of Yongle and Xuande emperors of China, many magnificent bronze images were cast by Chinese court artisans as presents to the high monks of Tibet as well as for the Emperor’s own worship. This example shows the 6-armed, 3-faced goddess Sparshavajra being embraced by Guhyasamaja, who also has six arms and three faces. The three faces are white, red, and blue, standing for the perfection of the physical, verbal and mental aspects of enlightened beings.
Guhyasamaja, whose name means “union of all secrets,” embodies all the sacred aspects of enlightened beings.
Far right in photo—the Buddha Vajradhara 1500-1600—representing the supreme essence of all buddhas, is identified by his hands, which are crossed in the gesture of high energy.
Tibetans see the skull as a natural container. Unshaped by human hands, it represents the fundamental goodness that is the natural condition of the mind. Bone trumpets call fearsome supernatural entities. Aprons of bone beads are counted among the funerary “dance clothes’ that signify a yogin’s heroic victory over life and death.
My photo—includes cabinet for storing offerings—cone-shaped dough offerings made of butter and roasted barley flour for the worship of wrathful deities.
Every monastery has a treasure chest—treasures like silver and gold butter lamps and rare thangkas. Chests were made in pairs.
Ushnishavijaya, the Buddha Amitayus, and White Tara are the three Tibetan Buddhist gods who grant longevity. Ushnishavijaya has three heads and eight hands. Buddhist texts specify that she traditionally held many symbolic elements, but they’re missing here. In her central hand she would have held a double thunderbolt; the other missing implements would have included a miniature Buddha image, a bow and arrow, and a vase containing the nectar of immortality.
7/6/2006
Tibet and the Himalayas (continued)
Thangkas
Shakyamuni, the historic Buddha, is identified in the Tibetan tradition by his yellow color and his hand gestures: his right hand makes the earth-touching gesture and in his left he carries an alms bowl.
The Buddha Vairochana—who is white and in color and holds his hands in the gesture of preaching.
Dharmatala--idealized form of the great Tang Dynasty monk-explorer and translator Xuanzang (the one whom the monk in The Journey to the West is based).
Arhats—Indian disciples whom the Buddha instructed to spread his teachings throughout the world
Avalokiteshvara is said to have gone to Tibet in his monkey form and mates with an ogress [so Buddhists took the old Bon legend and incorporated Avalokiteshvara]; from this union came six children, the ancestors of all Tibetans. Out of this creation myth, Tibetans credit both their peaceful, contemplative nature and their wild, mischievous ways.
Peaceful and Wrathful Deities
The vast Tibetan pantheon includes numerous peaceful and wrathful deities, who guide and protect believers on their paths to enlightenment. Among the images of peaceful deities are those of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, great teachers, and high monks. Wrathful deities, such as the guardian deities, use their power to protect Buddhism and to destroy the three major obstacles to enlightenment: anger, greed, and ignorance.
…While most peaceful deities have only one head and two arms, some depictions of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, have multiple heads and many arms. Added to the complexity, peaceful deities can have wrathful manifestations and vice versa.
Peaceful Deities:
Plain or jeweled halo
Jeweled crown
Necklaces and garlands of jewels
Usually one head and two arms
Bodies of regular proportions
Blue hair, hair neatly arranged
2 eyes
Serene expression
Hold peaceful objects such as lotus blossoms and vases
Peaceful gestures: meditation, dispelling fear, gift granting, or preaching
Sitting or standing on moon (white) disk
Wrathful Deities:
Flaming halo
Crown of five skulls
Garland of freshly severed heads
Numerous heads and arms
Squat bodies with rotund bellies
Orange hair, hair standing on end
Three bulging eyes
Fierce expression
Hold fearsome weapons and implements such as curved choppers and skull bowls
Threatening gestures
Sitting or standing on sun (gold or orange) disk
(The guardian) Vaishravana is the god of wealth, one of the eight protectors of the Buddha’s law, and the guardian of the Northern direction. Here, he sits inside his palace on his snow lion mount, which is supported on a moon disk on top of a lotus pedestal. With his right hand he holds a victory banner, and with his left he squeezes a mongoose, which is spitting a string of pearls onto the bowl of offerings below.
Blue figure of Jambhala, also a god of wealth. (Gee, you wouldn’t expect Buddhists to be that much into wealth.)
Tibetan message boards—(1875-1925)—Message boards (samdra) are ingenious Tibetan devices that do not require using precious handmade paper. The two printed covers enclose three double-sided blank boards that would have been used for sending formal messages between officials and noble households. Prior to a message being written, the boards were greased with butter and coated with a fine layer of ash or white chalk; then they were written on with a bamboo pen. The boards were stacked together—their raised boards protecting the message from being scratched—and placed in an elegant case. They were carried by a servant to one recipient who, after wiping off the first message, inscribed a reply.
The eastern Tibetan kingdom of Derge, known for metal artisanship of exceptional quality. (Silver, Derge work)
Togchas
[Display of little metal things]
Togchas (Tibetan: thog-lcags) are metal objects believed by Tibetans to have fallen from the sky, and are thus highly treasured as powerful talismans for warding off evil. The words thog (thunder and lightning) and lcags (iron) indicate that these metal objects are associated with specific atmospheric phenomena. The fact that togchas are found by chance by Tibetan peasants working in the fields or picked up by nomads in the highlands has led to the belief that they were not created by human hands but “fall from the sky” due to the effects of thunder and lightning. Tibetans wear togchas on their bodies and fondle them with their hands; some togchas develop a patina from constant handling.
Togchas, although found in Tibet, are not necessarily Tibetan in origin.
Bronze and other copper alloys.
Amulet containers of Tibet
Amulet containers (gau) are some of the most important personal adornments in Tibet. This container for small images, printed prayers and charms, molded tablets of protective deities and other relics has traditionally been worn by both men and women to ward off evil. The top of the gau, usually of silver, has fine filigree work and is sometimes embellished with turquoise and coral. The plain back is removable so objects can be inserted. Elaborate examples worn by the elite are made of gold and turquoise. While women wear the gau on a short necklace around their necks, strung with turquoise, coral, or banded agates, a man’s gau is larger and often shaped like a shrine. A traveler straps the gau to the arm or wears it across the chest bandolier style. The traveling gau is sometimes encased in brocade and is placed on the family altar when not in use.
[I bought an amulet, silver, turquoise and coral, at the Tibetan Style store.]
Molded plaques [I took a picture—big one is Avalokiteshvara]
…(Tsha tshas) are small sacred images, flat or three-dimensional, shaped out of clay in metal molds. The images are usually unbaked, and sometimes seeds, paper, or human ashes were mixed with the clay. Making tsha tshas is a meritorious act, and monasteries give them away to pilgrims. Some Tibetans carry tsha tshas inside the amulet boxes they wear…or stuff them into larger images as part of the consecration of those images. In Bhutan tsha tshas are found inside mani walls (a wall of stones carved with prayers) or piled up in caves. The practice of making such plaques began in India, and from there it spread to other countries in Asia with the advent of Buddhism.
Bhutan costume
Skewer-like pins (silver and turquoise) [used like kilt pins.]
Photo of woven fabric:
Woman’s costume (kira) on a blue ground
Cotton and silk
Three panels woven on a blackstrap loom were sewn together to form this kira, or woman’s costume [similar to a kilt/tartan]. It is worn wrapped around the body, belted at the waist (vertical stripes for women, horizontal for men.)
Guanyin—means “one who hears the sounds of the world.”
[Photo of bronze dakini with lion’s head]:
Simhavaktra Dakini (1600-1700, Tibet, gilt bronze)
The lion-headed dakini, Simhavaktra Dakini, strides in the sea of blood that represents samsara, the endless cycle of birth and death. Together with the crocodile-headed dakini, Simhavaktra Dakini accompanies Penjen Lhamo [protector of Lhasa & the Dalai Lama] in her efforts to liberate living beings. Simhavaktra Dakini holds a curved chopping knife, which cuts off the delusions that keep living beings trapped in the endless cycle. She is naked except for the flayed human skin on her back representing her triumph over the limitations of the human condition, and the wheel on her belly symbolizing the teachings of the Buddha.
Penden Lhamo, protector of the Gelug order
Penden Lhamo is the protector of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas, leaders of the Gelug [Gelukpa] order of Tibetan Buddhism.
Penden Lhamo is the only goddess among the eight guardians of the law. Accompanied by lion- and crocodile-headed dakinis, she rides her mule across the sea of blood that represents the endless cycle of birth and death, in order to liberate living beings from that cycle. The goddess sits on the flayed skin of her son, a nonbeliever [talk about religious persecution]. Attached to the trappings of the mule are her various emblems: a book, a ball of magic thread, a skin bag of diseases for germ warfare, and a pair of dice for divination. [Took photo—1700-1800, China, gilt bronze]
China
Essential Features of Early Chinese Religion
People in every station in life had a religious obligation to worship and honor ancestors, and to provide a male heir to continue the family line. At the highest levels, this same belief system applied: worship of a ruler’s ancestors was necessary for the continued existence of a state.
Obliged by their religion to provide their parents with a proper funeral with as much pomp as was financially possible and permitted by the codes of the time. Tombs were to be furnished according to the status of the deceased.
Each person was believed to have a complex soul. Some parts of the soul were thought to stay with the body after burial and others to travel to paradise.
There were state-sponsored rites to high divinities, such as the gods of the four directions or the four (or eight) winds, and the gods of the soil.
There was widespread belief in and rituals for deities of local mountains, rivers, old trees, and the like [and that shows up in The Journey to the West].
Religious buildings (including tombs) and the rites conducted in or about them were required to be properly oriented in relation to the directions and cosmic forces.
Fourth century CE—Buddhism came to China.
Jadework—goes back 6000 years in China.
Religious and Funerary Practices:
Because certain aspects of the deceased’s soul were believed to continue to dwell in the tomb, it was imperative that the body be preserved and accompanied by goods that represented the status of the deceased….
It was thought that there were specific dwelling places for the immortals and that the soul of the deceased could travel to and reside in those places.
Spells and incantations, magical beings, and special prayers were believed to enable the deceased to reach a state of immortality.
The entrance to the tomb of a wealthy and highly placed member of the Tang aristocracy was elaborate. Leading to the tomb was a spirit path (shendao) flanked by pairs of stone animals and human attendants. A doorway marked the entrance to the tomb proper, and the path continued in the form of a ramp, to the burial chamber. Guardians in clay flanked the ramp.
Animals, Supernatural and Real
Clay models of a menagerie of animals, both real and imaginary, have been found arranged in aristocratic tombs dating from the Han through the Tang dynasties (206 BCE-906 BCE). They represented the desires of the living to reproduce symbolically the ideal environment for the deceased in the afterlife. The choice of animals provides some fascinating insights into the concerns and activities of aristocratic families during this time.
Horses played the predominant role among models of real animals. Valued as beasts of burden, as animals of war [barf] and sport, and as symbols of almost supernatural power (certain breeds were called “heavenly horses”), they were frequently depicted in funerary sculpture and paintings. Models of ox, camels, and other beasts of burden also appear in tombs, as do those of pigs, chickens, and the occasional sheep and goat. Models of dogs were buried with their owners, attesting to their status as valued pets, hunting companions, and at times a source of food.
A considerable number of clay models of imaginary animals have also been found in tombs. Some, such as fabulous creatures with human heads and composite animal bodies, served as guardians at the entrance to tombs. Others had directional or other symbolic significance.
Buddhism’s Arrival in China
The development of Buddhism in China during the four centuries following the collapse of the Han Dynasty in 220 is a momentous chapter in the story of China’s religious and cultural development. At the end of the Han Dynasty, China had already had a 2,000-year history during which it had developed a strong centralized civilization suspicious of and often condescending to things foreign. Moreover, China had a strong state cult and entrenched beliefs in ancestor worship.
Why, then, did so many Chinese [take up Buddhism]?… Four fundamental reasons can readily be suggested: the widespread suffering that followed the collapse of the mighty Han Dynasty, the resulting doubts in the institutions of Han culture, the appeal of new and different ideas, and the occupation of large parts of China by non-Chinese people. While compatible with some existing spiritual ideas, Buddhism offered an end to life’s cycle of suffering and offered rebirth in paradise. In contrast with other religions practiced in China at that time, it offered salvation to all levels of society.
Women and Early Chinese Buddhism
In 386 the Toba, a non-Chinese central Asian people, conquered northern China and established the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-535). Its leaders employed a number of methods to consolidate their rule over the Chinese population, including arranged marriages with important Chinese families. As the wives and mothers of emperors, the women involved in these marriages were in a position to influence the development of Buddhism in northern China as well as the course of Chinese culture and politics.
One such woman was Lady Feng, who, as the mother of an underage emperor, was a considerable force at the Wei court from 476 to 490. Under her influence many Chinese were placed in positions of power, their language and manner of dress at court replaced those of the Toba, and the ruling clans were forced to use Chinese names. Lady Feng was also instrumental in bringing out the change from Greco-Roman-influenced style of sculpture to thinner, flatter figures covered with extremely heavy robes.
Later Chinese Buddhism
In 845 the Tang emperor Wu, under the influence of Taoist and Confucian advisors, began to persecute those who practiced religions that didn’t originate in China. According to records of the time, some 4600 Buddhist monasteries were demolished, their property was seized by the throne, massive numbers of Buddhist artworks were destroyed, and more than 260,000 monks and nuns were returned to lay life.
Although Buddhist institutions would never again be as strong or as rich as they had been in earlier dynasties, the religion nonetheless continued to play a vital role in Chinese life.
(Another day)
India
Naga—supernatural serpents, good luck because they’re associated with water.
Turns the wheel of the doctrine= Buddhist preaching (was already used in ancient Indian art)
Buddhist creed:
“The Buddha has explained the cause of all things that arise from a cause. He, the great monk, has also explained their cessation.”
When this statement is inscribed on sculptures, it is more than a simple statement of belief. In fact, for believers it serves to animate the sculpture with the living presence of the Buddha’s doctrine.
Standard 8 scenes of the Buddha’s life (and locations):
1) Birth (Lumbini)
2) Victory over Mara (Bodhgaya)
3) First preaching (Sarnath)
4) Miracles of Shravasti (Shravasti)
5) Descent from Indra’s heavens after the Buddha had preached to his deceased mother (Sankashya)
6) The monkey’s offering (Vaishali)
7) The taming of the enraged elephant (Rajgir)
8) Death (Kushinagara)
(Gee, at least some of those places are in "The Footsteps of the Buddha" tour that I would love to take.)
The Buddhist deity Vajra Tara (Diamond Tara or Thunderbolt Tara) is know as a provider of magical protection. Her devotees were adherents of a branch of Buddhism that made use of mandalas….
The Buddha taming the enraged elephant
The Buddha’s evil cousin sent an enraged elephant to attack him. The Buddha held his ground and is said to have suffused the elephant with loving-kindness of mind. The elephant knelt in submission. This story can be understood as symbolizing our need to subdue our uncontrolled and violent animal instincts.
[The only animal that drops bombs and builds nuclear weapons is the human animal.]
Later Buddhism in India
After Buddhism became increasingly elaborate, many Buddhists envisioned a universe of thousands of world systems existing at the same time, each presided over by a Buddha. Some Buddhists envisioned five Buddhas ruling the five directions (east, south, west, north, center). Also worshiped were the crowned Buddha, the great savior deities (Bodhisattvas), and female deities such as the one who personifies the perfection of “transcendent wisdom.”
Language in India—
The most fundamental cultural different is between the north and the south. For 1000s of years the north has been affected by the movements of peoples and ideas from the northwest—from Central Asia and the Iranian world. Most northern Indians speak languages like Hindi and Gujurati that belong to the Indo-European family. These languages are distantly related to Latin and English. By contrast, most southern Indians speak languages from the Dravidian family, which are unrelated to languages in other parts of the world.
Hindu temples often had sculptures of the deities of the 4 cardinal (north, south, east, west) and 4 intercardinal (Northeast, Southeast, Southwest, and Northwest) directions positioned on their exterior walls.
Mahavira (approx. 599-527 BCE), founder of Jainism (contemporary of the Buddha Siddhartha)
Like the Buddha, Mahavira questioned traditional practices such as the caste system, the priestly domination of religious life, and the performance of ritual sacrifices. He taught that the ultimate religious goal—escape from the cycle of rebirth—could be achieved through very strict meditation, self-denial, and nonviolence.
Jain figures are always sculptured with hands folded in meditation. Some have auspicious diamond pattern on chest.
Features such as a lotus seat, lions, a halo, and a wheel are seen in Jain, Buddhist, and Hindu imagery alike.
Kalpasutra—Jain scripture
Hinduism
To outside observers, a prominent feature of Hinduism is the belief in many deities. Most Hindus believe that there is one supreme deity. Beyond form, and therefore without such attributes as size, gender, or color—of whom the many individual gods and goddesses are forms existing for the benefit of worshipers.
Two male demons set out to overcome the warrior goddess Durga. When she saw them, “her face in anger became black as ink. From her knitted brows sprang forth Kali (Chamunda), with her dreadful face…. She carried a strange skull-shaped staff, she was shrouded in a tiger skin and looked utterly gruesome with her emaciated skin. Her mouth gaped widely, terrifying with its lolling tongue, and filled the directions with roars.”
From Devi Mahatmya [The Glories of the Goddess]
Translation: Devi, the Great Goddess by Thomas B. Coburn (1999)
Auspicious Kali—gracious aspect of Kali
Statue of Krishna has a halo and inside the halo is a design that looks like the star of David. It’s actually an ancient Hindu symbol of the integration of opposites (Da Vinci Code)
Jambhala is chief among a group of deities know as Yakshas, who are closely associated with nature and the riches of the earth. … Jambhala and other Yakshas were the focus of numerous local cults before Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism emerged. … To win the support of local communities, the proponents of these three faiths incorporated many such deities into their pantheons.
Brahmani
Many male Hindu deities have a female counterpart who embodies an aspect of their energy. Here is Brahmani, the female counterpart of Brahma, a creator deity. Like Brahma she is identifiable by her four faces (one in back) and her accompanying animal, a wild goose.
Brahmani is one of a group of female deities know as the “Seven Mother Goddesses.”
Korea
Ancient Koreans believed birds to be messengers to the spirit world because they could travel over land and water and through the sky. In some images, figures of birds can still be seen on top of tall wooden poles, recalling their earlier importance. Because they mate for life, ducks were especially favored by Koreans.
Buddhism in Korea
Buddhism became the official religion of one of Korea’s early kingdoms in 372, after a priest from China arrived with Buddhist images and sculptures. From the time of its intro it had the enthusiastic support of the rulers and the aristocracy. By the middle of the 500s, Buddhism had been accepted officially by all three kingdoms that reigned in Korean at that time.
Many Korean monks traveled to China to study Buddhism; some even went as far as India. The monk Hyecho, for instance, made a journey through China to India around 723. He wrote an account of his pilgrimage to holy places called Record of a Journey to the Five Indian Kingdoms.
Buddhism reached a glorious era during the Unified Silla Dynasty (663-935). Gyeonghu, the capital of this dynasty, was described as the city where the roof lines of Buddhist temples looked like flying geese, and pagodas were as numerous as the stars. By the beginning of the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) the fervor for Buddhism became so great that princes and sons of prominent families were encouraged to become monks.
Then, during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) reform-minded Confucian scholar-officials instituted a number of harsh restrictions on the practice of Buddhism, such as reducing the number of temples and confiscating Buddhist lands and goods. Despite these policies of repression, the religion survived in Korea. Today it is once again a vital force, attracting a large following.
China (again)
Romance of the Western Chamber—Chinese classic
Cats and butterflies are among the many symbols for longevity. The cat (mao) sounds like the word for 70, while the butterfly (die) shares a sound with the word for 80. They form a visual pun for maodie (longevity).
Chinese Symbolism
Cranes = longevity
Fungus (mushroom)= immortality
Peonies= wealth and prosperity
Pine needles= longevity
Most popular meanings: longevity (shou) ; the passing of exams, high rank, and wealth (lu); and blessings and children (fu).
When combined with one another, these symbols create auspicious sayings that have been used since antiquity in China.
Magu—identified by jade basket of fungus of immortality, is the goddess Chinese women pray to for longevity (Daoist).
White magnolia (yulan) and peonies (fugushua) stand for yutang fugas, a popular phrase for wealth and rank.
Buddha’s hand citron—fruit thought to resemble Buddha hands, means blessing and longevity
Daoist Goddess Dowmu—(8 arms) –2 hands praying
The Dipper Mother (Douriu) g rants longevity, affluence, and protection to her worshipers. Taoist tradition—clouds shaped like wish-fulfilling fungus of immortality.
Marici= Buddhist goddess of the dawn (this image is both—she’s in sun dsik, three-headed with left head = boar.
Holds up sun and moon disks (upper hands), bow and arrow (next down), bell and vase (lowest arms).
Although she’s mother goddess of the seven stars of Ursula Major (the Northern Dipper) She can have 18 arms and can combine Buddhism with Daoism.
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